Education Without Borders Essay Example

Education Without Borders Essay Education Without Borders Superintendent Tom Boasters has put Denver Public Schools (DIPS) on the fast track to be the first school district in the nation to hire fully qualified, previously undocumented immigrants to teach in classrooms. Boasters trailblazing decision to hire undocumented educators under the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACCA) initiative will bring a much desired wealth of diversity into Deniers multicultural classrooms. This progressive course of action will positively impact the educational development of undocumented students by providing culturally expensive teaching, bilingual educators, and mentors who share the same life experiences. The DACCA memorandum, authored by the Obama Administration, took effect on August 1 5th, 2012. It provides the U. S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (CUSCUS) with a clear process for exercising deportation relief. Such relief is intended for individuals who meet specific guidelines and who have been approved for deferred action under DACCA. This directive will provide thousands of undocumented children and young adults brought to the United States before the age of sixteen, the opportunity to further their education and obtain gainful employment while working toward permanent citizenship. In order to teach under the DACCA initiative, all applicants are required to attain a bachelors degree from an accredited university, and have an undergraduate GAP 2. 50 or greater. During the first year, approved applicants will receive a alternative provisionary teaching license issued by the Colorado Department of Education. We will write a custom essay sample on Education Without Borders specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Education Without Borders specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Education Without Borders specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Following the initial year, educators will be issued a traditional teaching license after completing a series of predatory educational programs offered at the University of Colorado Denver (CUD). DIPS officials, with cooperation from Teach For America (TEA), have been responsive to the DACCA initiative by hiring and actively pursuing suitable individuals that meet this specific criteria. One of the first teachers hired under the DACCA charge is Alexandra Funnies Mean. Mean was brought to the United States from Chile when he was four years old. He graduated from Whitman College with a Bachelor of Arts degree in Psychology, and is currently a fifth grade teacher at the Denver Center for International Study at Ford Elementary School in Deniers Monticello neighborhood. Mens experience of coming to the U. S. As a child, while living under the contemptuous veil of an illegal immigrant, has given him a unique perspective that helps him connect emotionally and culturally with impressionable students. Mens students can very easily relate to his plight and envision the possibility that they, too, can successfully graduate from high school, go on to earn a college degree, and use that education to give back to their community. Mean proudly explains, The impossible that existed in my childhood is something that is plausible and a reality now. I now have the opportunity to impact my students and show them that they too can achieve at the highest levels (Denver Public Schools: Communications Office 2014 ). Cultural influence and motivation from educators like Mean, leave long lasting impressions on undocumented and documented students alike. This in turn, expands educational equality, boosts civic participation, and increases economic opportunity in local communities. These young men and women bring extraordinary talent to our classrooms, explains Boasters. We have many, many kids whose stories are like Alexandria. When they [students] see the accomplishments of a nouns man like Alexandra, and hes their teacher with such ability and enthusiasm, I think he brings tremendous hope (Garcia 2014). Hope, inspiration, and a sense of self-worth are valuable components educators like Mean can bring to students in Deniers urban classrooms. As Denver schools become more ethnically diverse, DIPS will need to continue to find new and improved ways to keep students engaged. Hiring teachers with a bilingual skill set, along with the implementation of culturally responsive teaching, are two crucial components DIPS officials need to effectively empower and enrich the classroom experience of immigrant students. Colonization in the classroom starts when educators consciously bring care and empathy into the learning environment. In an ethnographic study of bilingual classrooms, Dry. Sheila M. Shannon states, in several studies, the teacher is clearly seen as the determiner of the culture of the classroom (322). This authority gives bilingual teachers the ability to shape the cultural narrative and linguistic context of classrooms, to fit the distinct needs of students. The ability to interact and teach students in their native language helps educators transform from the moniker of ordinary teacher, into a leader and role model, in the hearts and mind of students. Cultural familiarity stimulates comprehension Comprehension spurs interaction Interaction manifests into participation, and participation is a catalyst for validation. This is the gap in bilingual responsiveness Boasters is attempting to bridge in Deniers public school system. The theory of culturally responsive teaching is defined as using the cultural characteristics, experiences, and perspectives of ethnically diverse students as conduits for teaching them more effectively (Richly, and Graves 2012, Gay 2002). It is believed that students become more engaged and absorb information more fluently when they are comfortable in their learning environment. Engagement is advanced when English-language learners, which account for thirty percent of the DIPS student population, are immersed into bilingual and culturally familiar classrooms that present a curriculum that reflects students values and traditions. Geneva Gay, a Professor of Education at the University of Washington-Seattle asserts, Students feel validated and capable of learning presented information when the methods used to resent information is culturally responsive (Gay 2002). This reasoning gives a certain gravitas to Boasters edict to hire educators like Mean during a time when immigration reform is a hot-button issue in the U. S. Political landscape. Non-profit organizations like The Colorado Alliance for Immigration Reform (CAIRO) do not agree with the Boasters decision to employee undocumented teachers under the DACCA initiative . CAIRO claims hiring undocumented teachers will take Jobs away from qualified and experienced American teachers who are currently unemployed. This argument is a hasty generalization that contradicts Dips insistent challenge to find effective bilingual educators willing to teaching in urban classrooms. Boasters explains, In order to meet the demand [for bilingual teachers], we actually go overseas (Garcia 2014). In fact, undocumented teachers like Mean have to apply for open Jobs and go through the same application and interview process as everyone else, insists Shares Dairy, the Managing Directors of Regional Communications of TFH (You-His Lee, 2014). Cairns nationalistic and xenophobic stance on the DACCA initiative is extremely short-sighted and based on political talking points. The decision by DIPS officials to hire DACCA recipients as educators in Deniers urban classrooms contributes to Colorado cultural mosaic, and promotes equality in Deniers evolving educational system. Engagement and participation is primed when emotional and cultural connections are made between teachers and students. The relationships forged by teachers and students with familiar backgrounds, visavisa undocumented and bilingual, positively affect a broad scope of outcomes for children and young adults in society. Students who feel validated in classroom will be empowered to further their education, which will impede high school drop-out rends, reduced crime, and hinder staggering minority incarceration rates. I believe history will Judge the DACCA initiative as progressive and revolutionary shift in ongoing civil rights battle.

Free Essays on Human Resource Mangement

Human Resource Mangement By: Doug Sheppard Describe and critically evaluate the key factors that shape the role and practices of the HR/Personnel function within an organisation with which you are familiar. On the basis of your analysis identify the main HR challenges currently facing this organisation. Relate your analysis to appropriate literature. Introduction People are an important and expensive resource to a business. This asset has the capacity to be highly productive and generate revenue for the firm, but it also requires much attention and maintenance. When the direct costs of employment are added to the indirect costs of recruitment and selection, training and development, the organisation's investment in an average full-time employee can exceed  £100,000 in a short space of time. Therefore one of the fundamental factors is how to attract the right employee and retain their services, gaining efficiency throughout. Before answering the first part of the question â€Å"Describe and critically evaluate the key facto rs that shape the role and practices of the HR/Personnel function within an organisation with which you are familiar†, the differences between HRM and the older style ‘Personnel Management’ requires defining. Human Resource Management HRM can be defined as any part of the management structure that relates to people at work. It involves everything from recruitment to training to performance appraisal and overall employee welfare. HRM is originally an American management term that has taken over from the more restrictive 'Personnel Management', and denotes a more proactive and business-focused role, with an emphasis on good communication and staff commitment, more flexible work practices, and performance-related reward systems. leavingcert.net/. Once considered a more peripheral activity, HRM has now moved to the core of the business. The author’s own perspective of this assignment is delivered fr... Free Essays on Human Resource Mangement Free Essays on Human Resource Mangement Human Resource Mangement By: Doug Sheppard Describe and critically evaluate the key factors that shape the role and practices of the HR/Personnel function within an organisation with which you are familiar. On the basis of your analysis identify the main HR challenges currently facing this organisation. Relate your analysis to appropriate literature. Introduction People are an important and expensive resource to a business. This asset has the capacity to be highly productive and generate revenue for the firm, but it also requires much attention and maintenance. When the direct costs of employment are added to the indirect costs of recruitment and selection, training and development, the organisation's investment in an average full-time employee can exceed  £100,000 in a short space of time. Therefore one of the fundamental factors is how to attract the right employee and retain their services, gaining efficiency throughout. Before answering the first part of the question â€Å"Describe and critically evaluate the key facto rs that shape the role and practices of the HR/Personnel function within an organisation with which you are familiar†, the differences between HRM and the older style ‘Personnel Management’ requires defining. Human Resource Management HRM can be defined as any part of the management structure that relates to people at work. It involves everything from recruitment to training to performance appraisal and overall employee welfare. HRM is originally an American management term that has taken over from the more restrictive 'Personnel Management', and denotes a more proactive and business-focused role, with an emphasis on good communication and staff commitment, more flexible work practices, and performance-related reward systems. leavingcert.net/. Once considered a more peripheral activity, HRM has now moved to the core of the business. The author’s own perspective of this assignment is delivered fr...

New Public Health Measures Essays

New Public Health Measures Essays New Public Health Measures Paper New Public Health Measures Paper Introduction All of us here today are public health enthusiasts. If we weren’t we would be somehwere else, maybe helping sick people to get better. That is a worthy calling and thank goodness for all the people who do it. But so too is prevention, so too is keeping society healthy, so too is protecting the environment, so too is keeping food and water safe, so too is attending to immunization and child health. When we talk about public health these latter things, that focus on the whole community, or groups within society and the things that determine their health, are what we are talking about. This is big picture stuff. This is about asking why some communities are healthy and some are ill. Why do some communities have such high rates of diabetes, like the Pacific Islands, while other countries have no diabetes but lots of HIV and TB? These are the kind of interests and enthusiasms that have led people into public health as a career for as long as it has been around. These are the kind of questions that were asked ages ago and which are still appropriate to be asked now. So what is this thing called the ‘new’ public health? How has it come about and does it have added value? In brief, the new public health has come about because of growing interest in the subtle interaction of the environment with people living in affluent societies. The old public health remains the public health that most of the world needs, quite frankly, because communicable disease, malnutrition and other scourges are still the major killers worldwide. These are more or less the same as those that led people in the fifteenth century to look at how things such as the plague and cholera could be controlled through sanitation, clean water and quarantine. The new public health But the new public health is much more concerned with the interplay between affluence, social well being, education and health, social capital and health. These are not hard and fast things, like having no system for waste water disposal or using contaminated drinking water. They are more subtle, but in societies like ours where the basic public health engineering and  immunization and food safety are well in place and require surveillance but not reinvention, these new factors – the social, economic and community quality factors – are rising in importance as determinants of health and causes of illness. 1 For example, Michael Marmot has done studies with Geoffrey Rose and others in the UK examining coronary disease rates among civil servants, known as the Whitehall studies. They found that things like a sense of social control and cohesiveness were important determinants of whether people develop coronary disease. Money wasn’t everything. In the Whitehall II study, Marmot (Director of the International Centre for Health and Society at the University College London) and his colleagues examined the psychological characteristic of work termed â€Å"low control† – meaning that an individual worker had little control over his or her daily activities in the workplace. The results showed that it was an important predictor of the risk of cardiovascular disease and that it had an important role in accounting for the social gradient in coronary disease. 1 The origins of the new public health. The Canadians have been very active over many years in promoting our understanding about the interplay between society and social environmental factors and health. This started in 1974 when Marc Lalonde, who was then the Canadian health minister, commissioned a report on the health of Canadians which proposed four sets of factors that were important to keep in mind when thinking about the health of the public. The Lalonde Report2 refers to these four factors collectively as â€Å"The Health Field Concept†. The four elements are human biology, environment, lifestyle and health care organization. The human biology element includes all those aspects of health, both physical and mental, which are developed within the human body as a consequence of the basic biology of man and the organic make-up of the individual. The environment category includes all those matters related to health which are external to the human body and over which the individual has little or no control (for example, foods, water supply, etc). The lifestyle category consists of the aggregation of decisions by individuals which affect their health and over which they more or less have control. The fourth category in the concept is health care organisation, which consists of the quantity, quality, arrangement, nature and relationships of people and resources in the provision of health care the health care system. The Lalonde Report was ground breaking in its day and provoked widespread international interest. Implementation proved to be far harder than was expected and the resilience of the health-care system to drain resources away from the first three fields was spectacular. Nevertheless, Canada has had a more lively interest in the contribution of the first three fields to health and has preserved a degree of control over health care, including rigid enforcement of a restriction on numbers of doctors trained and practicing, ever since. Although perhaps not a direct consequence of the Lalonde Report, Canada has also 2 played a leading role in the evolution of health promotion as a discipline. Several of the leaders in the field, now nearly 30 years on from the Report, are Canadians. They have had a special sensitivity to the potential for health gain by examining not only what can be done to encourage and sustain changes in individual human behaviour that will contribute to better health, but also those changes that can be effected in the natural and built environment that can assist in achieving this goal. Health promotion and the new public health In Australia, the new public health has been reflected in the steady rise of health promotion, expressed such ways as the formation of the Australian Health Promotion Association. The Association’s major objectives include providing opportunities for members’ professional development, increasing public and professional awareness of the roles and functions of health promotion practitioners, and contributing to discussion, debate and decision making on health promotion policy and programs. Since its incorporation in 1990, the Health Promotion Association has grown and developed such that it now has an established function and a central place in Australia’s health promotion landscape. Health promotion is an active form of public health in which an agenda is set with communities and individuals to affirm positively the value of health and push towards high levels of health, seeing it rather as the WHO does as a positive state of well being and not simply the absence of illness. Health promotion uses a range of tactics and methods to achieve its ends, including community participation, development and skill strengthening, advocacy (where health professionals and others lobby for health to be taken seriously at political and commercial levels), and education. Something of a contrast has come to be drawn between the activist promotion end and the formal epidemiological end of the public health spectrum, the former hoeing in boots and all to effect change and the latter taking careful steps, using rigorous studies and statistics, to establish cause and effect relationships before acting. Both groups tend to drive one another nuts. This is a lively tension and not one that is likely to go away. Professor Fran Baum who is head of the Department of Public Health at Flinders University in Adelaide has written a book entitled The new public health: an Australian perspective, that I commend to you. In it the idea of the new public health is given extensive coverage. 3 Source: Baume, F (1988) The new public health: an Australian perspective The new public health overlaps and interacts with other health movements of the past decade – particularly health promotion, primary health care, community health, women’s health, Aboriginal health, workers’ health and health education. 3 History of the new public health The new public health started to develop in the 1980s. It was in the mid-1980s that there was a significant shift in public health when the WHO’s first international conference on health promotion was held in Ottawa, Canada. There were two driving forces behind the Ottawa Charter. It was clear that the Health for All by the Year 2000 strategy was not being adopted by industrialised countries, and the limitations of the lifestyle and behavioural approaches were increasingly being seen as requiring a new conceptualization for health promotion. Also the time was opportune for a more health promotion statement. The Ottawa Charter managed to integrate many of the different perspectives of health promotion. While being seen as the foundation of the new public health, it did not reject behavioural and lifestyle approaches, but saw them as part of the acquisition of personal skills for health. The Charter is based on the belief that health requires peace, shelter, education, food, income, a stable ecosystem, social justice and equity as prerequisites. 4 Box 3. 1: The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion, 1986. The Development of healthy public policy, which recognises that most of the private and public sector policies that affect health lie outside the conventional concerns of health agencies. Rather they are in policies such as environmental protection legislation, progressive taxation, welfare, occupational health and safety legislation and enforcement, land rights legislation and control of the sale and distribution of substances such as alcohol and tobacco. Health becomes, therefore, a concern and responsibility of each sector of government. The creation of supportive environments in which people can realise their full potential as healthy individuals. The Charter recognises the importance of social, economic and physical environmental factors in shaping people’s experiences of health. Strengthening community action refers to those activities that increase the ability of communities to achieve change in their physical environmental factors in shaping people’s experience of health. The development of personal skills acknowledges the role that behaviour and lifestyles plays in promoting health. The skills called for are those that enable people to make healthy choices. It also extends the skills base for health to those associated with community organisation, lobbying and advocacy, and the ability to analyse individual problems within a structural framework. Reorientation of health services is a call for health systems to shift their emphasis from (in most industrialised countries) an almost total concentration on hospital-based care and extensive technological diagnostic and intervention to a system that is community-based, more user-friendly and controlled, which focuses on health. The Ottawa Charter stresses the importance of, and recommends: Advocacy for health Enabling people to achieve their full health potential Mediation between different interests in society for the pursuit of health Source: Baume, F (1988). The new public health: an Australian perspective Following in the spirit of the Ottawa Charter, in 1986 the Better Health Commission (BHC), a group established by the then Commonwealth Minister for Health, Neal Blewett, published Looking Forward to Better Health. Its brief was to recommend ways in which health in Australia might be promoted, especially though ways that were 5  unconventional for the medical and public health professions. It was part of Australia’s response to the World Health Organization’s commitment to achieve equitable levels of health for all people, according tot the political and economic possibilities of each country, by 2000. This report contained proposals for achieving greater equity in health in Australia together with strategies to address several major preventable contributors to death and disease. Task forces established goals and targets for three priority health topics: cardiovascular disease, nutrition and injury. 4 In making these choices the Commission was concerned to identify not only big problems, but also problems potentially amenable to prevention. Heart disease, the principal cause of death, was also chosen because of its multiple modifiable causes (e. g. diet, smoking an sedentary living), nutrition because of its multiple consequences (e. g. diabetes, heart disease and cancer) and injury because it cannot be dealt with preventively by efforts confined to health care but must involve industry, transport, law enforcement and industrial relations. These three major health problems in contemporary Australian society are priorities for health promotion by virtually any criterion. The work of the BHC was taken further in the National Better Health Program and led to the formulation of national health goals and then national health priorities which remain in place today. By the end of the 1980s, despite success, there was some Australian scepticism about the new directions in public health. Some questioned whether the new public health was really ‘new’ or simply old ideas in new clothing. This criticism is somewhat harsh as one of the features of the Ottawa Charter is that it does not ignore public health history but rather builds on it. The Ottawa Charter reflected numerous social and health movements of the previous 120 or so years. Its claims to be ‘new’ derives from how it pulled together numerous and diverse movements to present a package which gave public health a more radical and cohesive direction than had been the case for some time. Today, public health is alive and well and confronting in this country the challenges that it can assist ameliorate. We are an astonishingly healthy nation – on average. We have the second longest healthy life expectancy of all nations, a fraction behind Japan. But within our country we have communities including those of some of our Indigenous people where these privileged are far from being available. It is here that a combination of old and new public health measures is required. Good work is being done and more is needed. This is the mission of public health. 6 References 1. Marmot, M ‘Inequalities in Health’, The New England Journal of Medicine 2001;345(2):134-136 2. Lalonde, M (1974) A New Perspective on the Health of Canadians. Ottawa: National Ministry of Health and Welfare 3. Baume, F (1998) The new public health: an Australian perspective Publisher: Oxford University Press 4. Leeder S R (1999) Healthy Medicine, Challenges facing Australia’s health services Publisher: Allen Unwin 7

Colonel General Heinz Guderian in World War II

Colonel General Heinz Guderian in World War II Colonel General Heinz Guderian was German military officer who helped pioneer blitzkrieg warfare using armor and motorized infantry. A veteran of World War I, he elected to remain in the service during the interwar years and published his ideas on mobile warfare as the book Achtung - Panzer!. With the beginning of World War II, Guderian commanded armored formations in the invasions of Poland, France, and the Soviet Union. Briefly falling out of favor, he later served as Inspector-General of the Armored Troops and Acting Chief of the General Staff. Guderian ultimately surrendered to American forces on May 10, 1945. Early Life Career The son of a German soldier, Heinz Guderian was born at Kulm, Germany (now Chelmno, Poland) on June 17, 1888. Entering military school in 1901, he continued for six years until joining his fathers unit, Jger Bataillon No. 10, as a cadet. After brief service with this unit, he was dispatched to a military academy at Metz. Graduating in 1908, he was commissioned as a lieutenant and returned to the jgers. In 1911, he met Margarete Goerne and quickly fell in love. Believing his son too young to marry, his father forbade the union and sent him for instruction with the 3rd Telegraph Battalion of the Signal Corps. World War I Returning in 1913, he was permitted to marry Margarete. In the year before World War I, Guderian underwent staff training in Berlin. With the outbreak of hostilities in August 1914, he found himself working in signals and staff assignments. Though not at the front lines, these postings allowed him to develop his skills in strategic planning and the direction of large-scale battles. Despite his rear area assignments, Guderian sometimes found himself in action and earned the Iron Cross first and second class during the conflict. Though he often clashed with his superiors, Guderian was seen as an officer with great promise. With the war winding down in 1918, he was angered by the German decision to surrender as he believed that the nation should have fought until the end. A captain at the end of the war, Guderian elected to remain in the postwar German Army (Reichswehr) and was given command of a company in the 10th Jger Battalion. Following this assignment, he was shifted to the Truppenamt which served as the armys de facto general staff. Promoted to major in 1927, Guderian was posted to the Truppenamt section for transport. Colonel General Heinz Guderian Rank: Colonel GeneralService: German ArmyNickname(s): Hammering HeinzBorn: June 17 1888 in Kulm, German EmpireDied: May 14, 1954 in Schwangau, West GermanyParents: Friedrich and Clara GuderianSpouse: Margarete GoerneChildren: Heinz (1914-2004), Kurt (1918-1984)Conflicts: World War I, World War IIKnown For: Invasion of Poland, Battle of France, Operation Barbarossa Developing Mobile Warfare In this role, Guderian was able to play a key role in developing and teaching motorized and armored tactics. Extensively studying the works of mobile warfare theorists, such as J.F.C. Fuller, he began to conceive of what would ultimately become the blitzkrieg approach to warfare. Believing that armor should play the key role in any attack, he argued that formations should be mixed and contain motorized infantry to aid and support the tanks. By including support units with the armor, breakthroughs could be quickly exploited and rapid advances sustained. Espousing these theories, Guderian was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1931 and made chief of staff to the Inspectorate of Motorized Troops. A promotion to colonel quickly followed two years later. With German rearmament in 1935, Guderian was given command of the 2nd Panzer Division and received a promotion to major general in 1936. Over the next year, Guderian recorded his ideas on mobile warfare, and those of his compatriots, into the book Achtung - Panzer!. Making a persuasive case for his approach to war, Guderian also introduced a combined arms element as he incorporated air power into his theories. Promoted to lieutenant general on February 4, 1938, Guderian received command of the XVI Army Corps. With the conclusion of the Munich Agreement later that year, his troops led the German occupation of the Sudetenland. Advanced to general in 1939, Guderian was made Chief of Fast Troops with responsibility for recruiting, organizing and training the armys motorized and armored troops. In this position, he was able to shape panzer units to effectively implement his ideas of mobile warfare. As the year passed, Guderian was given command of the XIX Army Corps in preparation for the invasion of Poland. World War II German forces opened World War II on September 1, 1939, when they invaded Poland. Putting his ideas into use, Guderians corps slashed through Poland and he personally oversaw German forces at the Battles of Wizna and Kobryn. With the conclusion of the campaign, Guderian received a large country estate in what became Reichsgau Wartheland. Shifted west, XIX Corps played a key role in the Battle of France in May and June 1940. Driving through the Ardennes, Guderian led a lightning campaign that split the Allied forces. Heinz Guderian during the Battle of France. Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-769-0229-12A / Borchert, Erich (Eric) / CC-BY-SA 3.0 Breaking through the Allied lines, his rapid advances constantly kept the Allies off balance as his troops disrupted rear areas and overran headquarters. Though his superiors wished to slow his advance, threats of resignation and requests for reconnaissances in force kept his offensive moving. Driving west, his corps led the race to the sea and reached the English Channel on May 20. Turning south, Guderian aided in the final defeat of France. Promoted to colonel general (generaloberst), Guderian took his command, now dubbed Panzergruppe 2, east in 1941 to participate in Operation Barbarossa. In Russia Attacking the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, German forces made quick gains. Driving east, Guderians troops overwhelmed the Red Army and aided in the capture of Smolensk in early August. Through his troops were preparing for a rapid advance on Moscow, Guderian was angered when Adolf Hitler ordered his troops to turn south toward Kiev. Protesting this order, he quickly lost Hitlers confidence. Ultimately obeying, he aided in the capture of the Ukrainian capital. Returning to his advance on Moscow, Guderian and German forces were halted in front of the city in December. Hienz Guderian during Operation Barbarossa, 1941. Bundesarchiv, Bild 101I-139-1112-17 / Knobloch, Ludwig / CC-BY-SA 3.0 Later Assignments On December 25, Guderian and several senior German commanders on the Eastern Front were relieved for conducting a strategic retreat against the wishes of Hitler. His relief was facilitated by Army Group Center commander Field Marshal Gunther von Kluge with whom Guderian had frequently clashed. Departing Russia, Guderian was placed on the reserve list and retired to his estate with his career effectively over. In September 1942, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel requested that Guderian serve as his relief in Africa while he returned to Germany for medical treatment. This request was refused by the German high command with the statement, Guderian is not accepted. With the German defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad, Guderian was given new life when Hitler recalled him to serve as Inspector-General of the Armored Troops. In this role, he advocated for the production of more Panzer IVs which were more reliable than the newer Panther and Tiger tanks. Reporting directly to Hitler, he was tasked with overseeing armor strategy, production, and training. On July 21, 1944, a day after the failed attempt on Hitlers life, he was elevated to Army Chief of Staff. After several months of arguments with Hitler over how to defend Germany and fight a two-front war, Guderian was relieved for medical reasons on March 28, 1945. Later Life As the war wound down, Guderian and his staff moved west and surrendered to American forces on May 10. Kept as a prisoner of war until 1948, he was not charged with war crimes at the Nuremburg Trials despite requests from the Soviet and Polish governments. In the years after the war, he aided in the reconstruction of the German Army (Bundeswehr). Heinz Guderian died at Schwangau on May 14, 1954. He was buried at Friedhof Hildesheimer Strasse in Goslar, Germany.

Compare and Contrast Rawlsian and Dworkinian account of distributive Essay

Compare and Contrast Rawlsian and Dworkinian account of distributive justice - Essay Example The focus in this methodology of viewing justice is on the outcomes and results of distributions rather than the procedural tools which connect with administrative bodies or the government established in the system. Two prominent thinkers, i.e. Ronald Dworkin and John Rawls have presented their ideas about distributive justice and an understanding of these ideas is important for any student of sociology, philosophy, law and even economics. It would be best to examine the ideas of Rawls first since he presented his ideas before Dworkin. In the simplest of terms, John Rawls distributive justice is based on the idea of alternative distributive justice in which a Difference Principle is called into action. Rawls accepts that equality and equal distribution of resources within any given system is impossible therefore he creates a difference principle under which inequality becomes perfectly acceptable. The Difference Principle allows a society to allocate resources in a way where equality is not needed, but only if the creation of this inequality makes the lower strata of society materially better off than they would have been had there been perfect equality (Rawls, 1993). As a difference to Dworkinian distributive justice, this idea is based on the fact that the level of wealth in an economy is never a fixed constant and it can be changed from one point in time to the other. Rawls suggests that the wealth of a nation can be created by technology, innovation and development and this has been clearly proven by the industrialized nations of the world. Of course this comes with the idea of capitalism and social Darwinism where the most productive people within an economy will rise to the top and create wealth for themselves as well as the economic system they are in. This may lead to the accumulation of wealth at the top of the social order but Rawls does not consider this to be a

Open Communications Network With PLCs Assignment

Open Communications Network With PLCs - Assignment Example These levels of communication are either open or closed. Open communication technologies using programmable logic controllers are in some instances considered to be less secure since they are prone to interference by unauthorized individuals. However, they are proffered by several companies due to their low costs (Beach, 2008). There are several devices that enable data transmission using Programmable Logic Controllers. These encompass several gateways that are hosted in different operating system development environment. Open network communication getaways use the open Linux development environment together with certified hardware to ensure secure and efficient data transmission. Using these getaways, several interfaces are employed. These include universal serials Buses (USB’s), Serial ports, secure digits cards (SD cards) and Ethernet. Also, internal peripherals such as Global position System (GPS) receivers, and cellular modems maybe used. Programmable Logic Controllers networks are equipped with several options that are designed to meet specific communication and control requirements. Some of the typical options provided include peer-to-peer communications, host computer communications among others. The vendors of this PLC devices produce unique devices with unique networking capabilities (Irwin,

Industry Networking Event Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Industry Networking Event - Assignment Example This is a movie which premiered recently and some of the aspects to do with the movie were being highlighted. The place where this activity was being carried out was at the Gnomon School of Visual Effect. The choice of location and sponsor in this case seems to be rather strategic. This is because for starters the institution is one that focuses on certain aspects which are well brought out in the movie. These are the issues to do with 3D effects among other things. The choice of this particular event was not just coincidental. It was done with the intention of finding out how individuals studying a particular concept are able to interact with the individuals who are applying what they are studying. The event was rather publicized around the Hollywood area and for this reason anyone who had interest in such an activity was in the know. The internet also played a role in the sense that it provided more information and shed more light on the information that was already at hand. Through the internet the minor details about the events and its associated activities were known. This event is actually very important especially to the individuals who are interested in the entertainment and movie-making industry. Through such an event they are able to know the finer details that are involved when developing a movie with the magnitude of the one that was being examined. It should be understood that movie production is not a simple feat as such and for this reason before embarking on such an activity one has to borrow a leaf from the individuals who have already succeeded in the same area. At the same time the event is able to make people know how certain concepts in a movie are developed. This is actually interesting because for the general public or the lay person there are some things that go on in movies which are considered to be out of the ordinary. This event brought clear understanding of such phenomena. I

Vitamin D Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Vitamin D - Essay Example se is of course individuals that live in far northern latitudes where temperature concern requires these individuals to remain thoroughly covered so that frostbite and/or exposure to inclement weather is not affected. A secondary group of individuals that is negatively impacted by the degree and extent to which they are able to gain healthful level of exposure to the sun, in order to encourage the body to create vitamin D naturally, are those individuals within societies that are relatively wealthy and spend the majority of their time indoors. However, there is a third contingent of individuals that must be considered with respect to low vitamin D levels and the impact this on out. These are with regards to women that live within conservative Muslim nations in and around the equator; specifically Saudi Arabia. Accordingly, the following analysis will focus specifically upon the difficulties in achieving sufficient levels of vitamin D for female stakeholders within Saudi Arabia, some of the means by which diet can be leveraged as a function of promoting vitamin D levels within the human body, the effects of vitamin D deficiency, and ways to raise awareness with regard to the impacts of low vitamin D levels. Firstly, with respect to low vitamin D levels that are represented within the female population of conservative Muslim societies, this is oftentimes the result of the fact that strict norms of morality prevent women from showing anything more than their hands or a brief space around the eyes. Whereas it is not the goal of this particular paper to discuss whether or not the niqab is ethical or moral, in a universal standpoint, it must be noted that these moral restrictions create a situation through which vitamin D creation from the sun is nearly impossible (Vanni et al., 2014). As women remain cloistered behind layers of dark fabric, the overall amount of time that they are able to spend outside, or in public in general, is restricted. Furthermore, the extreme

Macro & Micro economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 2

Macro & Micro economics - Essay Example With the rising income levels of most of the economies, the demands for entertainment products like dolls have substantially increased. In the modern age, dolls are often made of rubberized plastic materials. These materials comprises of crude oil and national gas in them. There are special machines that help to give shape to standardized pieces of doll parts in the manufacturing process. Nowadays to park more potential buyers, doll manufacturing companies use special chemicals to produce dolls of various skin colors to make them attractive to various types’ customers belonging to different global zones. Car Production Process Unlike doll production, automobile industry or car production process is highly labor intensive in nature. Mercedes, Honda, Tesla, BMW etc are the various companies manufacturing cars. With the growth of per capita income levels and the improvement in the rate of urbanization in most of the economies in the world, the proportions of cars demanded in the market have increased significantly. However it should be considered that manufacturing of cars requires high state of technology and exclusive machineries. It is clearly observed in the video that the level of car production process takes place via various steps, where there are huge modern machines automatically executing the manufacturing process. Thus unlike doll industries, car manufacturing industries requires large amount of electricity and petroleum for its working. Hypothetical Input Output Matrix Industry Input Costs Toy Industry (manufacturing dolls) Automobile Industry (manufacturing cars) Cost of Labor Input $153 million $85 million Cost of Capital Input $ 60 million $200 million (Source: Authors Creation) The above hypothetical input industry 2x2 matrixes clearly shows that the gross cost of labor input is more than capital input in the toy industry producing dolls. On the other hand, the automobile industry manufacturing cars require more expensive capital input cost than labor cost. Thus it is quantitatively proved that the toy industry is a labor intensive industry and the car manufacturing industry is a capital intensive industry. Factor Intensity and Factor Abundance China is the most populated nation in the world. Perhaps this is the reason for which the country is rich in terms of labor resource. The nation always concentrates in labor intensive modes of production. It is a labor abundant nation, where the size of its labor force is 937.27 million as recorded in 2011. On the other hand, U.S. is a nation rich in terms of financial resources. This is the reason for which the country is a capital abundant nation that is rich in terms of technological knowhow. The following section of the essay will concentrate on the factor endowments of the two countries and the factor intensities of the industries in a graphically represented Hecksher Ohlin model. Figure 1: Hecksher Ohlin Model Car Production Doll Production The production Possibility Front iers (PPF) shows the two combinations of two goods that can be produced with the given amount of resources and state of technology1. The steeper PPF is of U.S., signifying capital abundance and intensity in production. The flatter PPF is of China, signifying labor abundance and intensity in production. The convex lines are the isoquants that show the different combinations of inputs that can be utilized to produce the same amount of output. B and E are the points inside the PPF of U.S. and China respectively, showing situations where all the resources are not efficiently used. A and G are the autarky or non trading positions of U.S. and China

The Han and Rome Essay Example for Free

The Han and Rome Essay From 206 B.C.E. 220 C.E., the Han dynasty, in China, accumulated many political control methods, as did Imperial Rome reigning from 31 B.C.E. – 476 C.E. However, there were more differences than similarities between the two empires/dynasties. Two main differences were China and Rome’s territorial expansion and their political philosophies (mandate of heaven and monarchy). A similarity between these two empires would be their centralized government adopting bureaucracy. China put their trust in the mandate of heaven, which is a Chinese political theory that gave those in power the right to rule from a divine authority. Imperial Rome relied on a monarchy system, which put Augustus Caesar (Julius Caesar’s son) into power. Another factor that differentiated Han China and Imperial Rome was their territorial expansion. Imperial Rome expanded from Italy to Spain, Gaul, Macedonia, Asia Minor, Egypt, Greece and Britannia. However, although Han China expands throughout Asia, they felt they did not need to expand much to sustain their power. Nonetheless, what allowed Han China and Imperial Rome to resemble each other, was there centralized bureaucracies. This is a government system in which all of the important decisions are made by one or a few authorities in a region. Rowland 2 Han China (206 B.C.E. 220 C.E.) and Imperial Rome (31 B.C.E. – 476 C.E.) discriminate more with their political methods, than relate to one another. Two distinctions would be their political philosophies, mandate of heaven and monarchy, and their territorial expansion concepts. One aspect that helped them relate to one another was that they shared the ideal of a centralized bureaucracy.

Violent Crime Throughout History Criminology Essay

Violent Crime Throughout History Criminology Essay From the beginning of human life, violent crime has been an issue that society has had to deal with. Violent crime destroys the lives of innocent people. In order for people to live in peace, it is important that society finds a way to decrease violent criminal behavior. Society continually puts restraints in place as a means of deterring violent crime. These restraints are based on theories as to how violent behavior is derived and controlled. Before we can successfully deter criminal behavior, we must first understand the minds of those that commit these crimes. Social organizational theories suggest that the criminal mind evolves from its environment. Statistically, there is some truth to this, because crime is more dominant in urban, low income geographic areas with weak community controls. Theorists, Clifford Shaw and Henry Mckay (1972), Note the format for multiple authors, described socially disorganized neighborhoods as brimming with attitudes and values conductive to delinquency and crime, which provided pathways to adult crime. Social disorganization is described by social scientist, Robert Bursik (1988), this is the citation format for a single author as the capacity of a neighborhood to regulate itself through formal and informal processes of social control. This criminal behavior sometimes becomes violent and is passed down from one generation to the next, which provides the continuation to its same geographic location. Violent criminal behavior is prevalent in areas that have a high rate of crime. Marvin Wolfgang (1958) found that most non-premeditated homicides, not caused by mental disease or defect, occur mostly among members of certain social groups living in certain neighborhoods. He also attributed most perpetrators as being young, nonwhite, lower-class males who share a value system, that conduct norms of a subculture of violence. (Wolfgang and Ferracuti, 1967, p. 276) If the quote is more than 40 words or more you do not use quotes. You block the quote, starting on a new line and indenting five spaces from the left margin on each line and double spacing. When quoting, always provide the author, year, and specific page citation in the text, and include a complete reference in the reference list. Most perpetrators value their social status in the community more than human life. Wolfgang and Ferracuti (1967) explained the thoughts of some perpetrators as its either him or me. Violence is used as a means of survival in some disorganized neighborhoods. This makes violent crime extremely hard to combat. Social organizational theories lend support to many different ways of deterring and combating violent crimes. Community policing can be directed to those areas that have many violent crimes reducing social disorder at the neighborhood level. Such neighborhoods can form groups, and separate themselves from gangs and violent crowds, categorizing such behavior as deviant and unacceptable to society. Gerald Suttles (1968) referred to such communities as defended neighborhoods. The Wilson and Kelling, (1982) broken window theory also reflects ways of deterring crime by cosmetically cleaning up a disorganized community, to instill pride in its inhabitants. Some communities are also installing gates and guards to keep the criminal element out. All of these deterrents are effective ways to combat violent crimes, but none will entirely eliminate them. Although statistics definitely reinforce social organizational theories, they definitely undermine a persons free will to commit a violent crime. There are people that come from disorganized communities that become successful and do not turn to crime, just as there are murderers and rapists that come from high class neighborhoods. Violent criminal behavior is not always passed down through generations. If a persons environment is responsible for the crimes that they commit, why is a person punished for their crimes? Is violent behavior a byproduct of ones environment, or is it the behavior learned or is its consequences not learned from their parents, peers, teachers, etc.? These are all questions that we struggle to find answers to that would help future endeavors in combating and deterring violent crime. Social Process Theories: Here we are given notice that the topic is changing substantially Theories that explain criminal behavior as learned behavior are considered social process theories. According to sociologist Edwin L. Sutherland (1950), criminal behavior is learned and most learning occurs within intimate personal groups. This has become known as the differential association theory. According to Ronald Akers (1985), learned criminal behavior is acquired or conditioned by the effects, outcomes, or consequences it has on the persons environment. This is accomplished through a persons punishments and reinforcements (rewards or avoided punishments). F. Ivan Nye (1958) described criminal activity from juvenile delinquents as being attributed to family-level punishments and restrictions, affection with parents, their conscience, and the availability of the means to gratify needs. Recently, young males are responsible for a good portion of not only crimes, but violent crimes. Violent crimes are a true concern to the public. Social process theories suggest that violent behavior may be learned from a persons peers or parents. Gang members form close-knit groups and may influence their peers to commit violent crimes. These theories also suggest that a child learns behavior from his or her parents. This can attribute to domestic violence, which has been proven to be spread from one generation to the next in many cases. According to social process theories, children must learn that violence is deviant in society and they must have proper parental guidance and reinforcement from peers. One way to combat violent criminal behavior is through the social bonding theory. According to Travis Hirschi (1972) The bond of affection for conventional persons is a major deterrent to crime. A social bond is the forces in a persons environment that connects them to society and its morality. The social bond theory is based on such key elements as attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. This theory can be applied by parental guidance, affection, and by incorporating community programs for children. Law enforcement officials can interact with troubled children, having a positive influence on them. DARE, Drug Abuse Resistance Education, and GREAT, Gang Resistance Education and Training are two examples of programs based on social process theories. Although effectiveness is debated, with some refinement, these programs may possibly have a profound effect on criminal behavior amongst juveniles. Social process theories offer some good ideas behind the cause of criminal behavior and ways to correct or deter it, but they definitely dont cover all crimes, especially some of those considered to be violent. Social process theories do not give much account for individual motives as to why crimes are committed. They do little to explain crimes of passion, and other violent crimes committed by people that were never exposed to such criminal behavior as a child. Travis Hirshci (1969), suggests that criminality is more or less naturally present, that it requires socialization for its control. Social learning theories suggest that criminal behavior is learned rather than naturally present. Conclusion: Your paper should end with a conclusionà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦usually your summary and any opinion of your findings. (avoid writing in the first person) Although different, social organizational and social process theories are similar in some aspects. Social organizational theories explain criminal or violent behavior as a product of ones environment. This is true in a way that the criminal behavior is learned through the people which surround them, which reflects views of social process theories. Sheldon Glueck (1950) refers to this as birds of a feather flock together. People are influenced by their surroundings either positively or negatively. This attributes to their upbringing. Statistics prove that someone from a good upbringing is less likely to become involved in crime. Criminal behavior leads to violent crime. One is very rarely present without the other. One example of this is that people on drugs will do what ever can to get a hold of drugs. When the regard for themselves and others diminishes, violent crime will occur. Both of these sets of theories are true in many aspects about the cause of crime. They both also provide us useful ways of combating and deterring crime. All theories are useful, but no one theory successfully explains all criminal behavior and the best way to deter it. In order to successfully deter violent crime, we must look at all of these theories and combat crime from all angles. Once we better understand the minds behind violent crime, we will do better in combating and deterring it.

A Decentralized Supply Chain Essay -- Business, Optimal Supply Chain

A decentralized supply chain Is one where each supply chain entity – manufacturer, retailer, intermediary, is free to make it's own operational decisions. However, these decisions need not necessarily all be in the best interest of the entire supply chain, but rather are usually taken keeping in mind the best interests of just the individual entity. a) Recent Literature on supply chain co-ordination with contracts Optimal supply chain performance requires the execution of a precise set of actions that are not always in the interest of the individual supply chain members, who are most often interested in only optimizing their own objectives (Cachon et al. (2003)). Optimal supply chain performance can be achieved if firms coordinate by contracting on a set of transfer payments that are design to align each firm's objective to the supply chain objective. This mechanism is termed decentralized supply chain co-ordination using contracts. In the following, we review some of the important contracts found in recent supply chain literature, the significant assumptions made while deriving the different contract types, the practical use and limitations of each type of contract. Through this section, we aim to develop an essential vocabulary of the state of the art in supply chain contracts and to use this knowledge to develop optimal, coordinating contractual structures for the problems in this dissertation.( Cachon et al. (2003)). Wholesale price contract: With a wholesale price contract, the supplier charges the retailer a fixed price w per-unit of product purchased. Lariviere and Porteus (2001) analyze a wholesale price contract in the context of the news-vendor model. They consider a manufacturer producing a single good at a mar... ...ize the probability of achieving a certain target. They obtain contracts based on the pareto optimality criterion, which is again different from the Nash Equilibrium criterion usually used to derive optimal contract parameters. The authors setup a definition of a pareto contract as : â€Å"Within a contractual form, a contract is said to be Pareto if its parameter set is Pareto, that is, there does not exist an alternative parameter set such that no agent is worse off and at least one agent is strictly better off.† They also note that Pareto contracts do not co-ordinate a supply chain, because there is one agent that is always strictly better off than other agents and for a contract to co-ordinate a supply chain, we need that the optimal actions of the agents under the contract lead to pareto optimality for the supply chain, as a whole, and not any individual agent.

My Antonia :: essays research papers

My Antonia by Willa Cather Author: Willa Sibert Cather, Nebraska's most noted author was born in Virginia. At the age of ten she moved with her family to Webster County, Nebraska. Many of Cather's acquaintances and Red Cloud area scenes can be recognized in her writings.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cather wrote poetry, short stories, essays and novels, winning many awards. In 1920 she won the Pulitzer Prize for her novel One of Ours, about a Nebraska farm boy who went off to World War I.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Willa Cather's reputation as one of America's finest novelists rests on her novels about Nebraska and the American Southwest. These novels express her deep love of the land and her distaste for the materialism and conformism of modern life.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Devoted to values such as the importance of family and the need for human courage and dignity, she created strong female characters whose sort of strength and determination had previously been attributed to only men.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  My Antonia, one of Cather's best works, is an unconventional, romantic novel of prairie life. It tells the story of a remarkable woman whose strength and passion epitomize the pioneer spirit. Characters:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Jim Burden - The man narrating the story.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Antonia Shimerda -The daughter of Bohemian immigrants and the heroine of the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  story.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ambrosch Shimerda - Antonia's mean brother   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Marek Shimerda -Antonia's mentally disabled brother.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Yulka Shimerda - Antonia's younger sister.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Mr. and Mrs. Shimerda - Antonia's gently father who committed suicide, and her   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  bitter, complaining mother.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Larry Donovan - The man Antonia thought was going to marry her.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lena Lingard - A girl that Jim grew up with and was successful.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Anton Cuzak - Antonia's husband. The Book   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The book begins with an introduction. In the introduction it tells about James Quale Burden (Jim Burden) and how the story came to be written. The introduction is written by a woman who is an old friend to Jim and who grew up in the same Nebraska town as he did. They are both now living in New York where Jim is a successful lawyer.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  She tells about Jim's wife, Genevieve, who she does not like, and doesn't think she is well suited for Jim. They start talking about Antonia, who they both knew and admired, and wondering why something wasn't written about her. Months later, Jim brings her what he had written and She writes the narrative as Jim had written it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The story begins with ten year old Jim Burden traveling from Virginia to Nebraska to live with his grandparents after losing his parents.

Attack Essay

â€Å"Attack† is a poem written in 1917 by Siegfried Sassoon while he was convalescing from his wounds in a hospital in Scotland. He was a soldier who fought in the First World War. Attack is a short, 13-line poem written in speech rhythm with some rhyme. The poem is described in a very vivid way which makes the reader think that the author himself witnessed the scene. The poem begins with the poet describing the setting of the poem. The landscape is in a battlefield where there are still remains of previous battles. The poet pictures it in a way that makes the scene very menacing and uncomfortable. The poem goes on with the soldiers fighting in the attack with their hopes struggling in the midst of war. Sassoon then ends the poem with an impassioned plea, â€Å"O Jesus, make in stop! † One major technique that the author uses in order to convey of the horror of the battlefield and what it seemed to be like to be in an attack is literal and figurative imageries. Examples of literal images are â€Å"the ridge emerges†, â€Å"bombs and guns and shovels and battle-gear†, â€Å"lines of grey, muttering faces†. The poet uses very striking diction that makes the poem sounds more uncomfortable, for example, â€Å"scarred slope†. The colour of the atmosphere is described as dun and wild purple which accentuates on the menacing atmosphere of the setting. The verbs at the beginning of the poem are very significant as they seem to be particularly strong in this poem, like the description of the tank â€Å"creep and topple† over the ridge, the barrage that â€Å"roars and lifts† or the men who â€Å"jostle and climb to†, etc. On the other hand, the poet also uses a lot of figurative images. These figurative images include: â€Å"time ticks blank and busy on their wrists†, â€Å"and hope, with furtive eyes, †¦ , flounders in mud†, etc. These images help to personify and emphasize the meaning of the poem, for example, in line 11: â€Å"While time ticks blank and busy on their wrists† The figurative image here delivers the meaning of the soldiers while fighting in the attack, are not aware of the time and how it ticks blankly and busily on their wrists. These two adjectives creates an alliteration that further emphasizes the meaning of how the soldiers are just spending meaningless time on the battlefield, forgetting who they are and what they do. Furthermore, the same kind of hopelessness is caught by the image of the time ticks blank and busy. This idea is brought out to us more clearly by the two last lines of the poem. Hope is personified as something with furtive eyes and grappling fists that flounders in mud, as if to compare it to the soldiers. The short statement, â€Å"flounders in mud† is also mentioning the solders falling down and dying in the attack. The impassioned plea at the end by the author seems to have a great effect on the readers as it shows the emotions and how sincerely the poet wants everything of this to stop. The mood of this poem if mostly menacing to the readers, it somehow makes us sympathize for the soldiers. Seeing the images of the attack, it also seems to have an emotive effect on the readers. The punctuations in the poem also help the poem to create a bigger effect of this. In many lines, a caesura is used to make the previous sentence emphasized and creates suspense as well as having a greater effect on the readers. Overall, Siegfried Sassoon has showed through the poem Attack shows how the soldiers have to go to the battlefield to fight on the lands of previous battles, having time ticking through and as they fall down, their hope also flounders, leaving them with their faces muttered, their fists grappling†¦

Lorenzo’s Oil Movie Review Essay

The movie, â€Å"Lorenzo’s Oil†, was about a family that found out that their son had been diagnosed with a rare, genetic disorder of which was considered incurable. The sex-linked disorder ALD, passed on by the x-chromosome, of which is usually accompanied by the unfortunate fate of death, has also been known to bring forth muteness, blindness, comas, seizures, and deafness. With no known cure for ALD, or any possible way of escaping its final result (death), doctors would use a special treatment to prevent any further deterioration of the brain, depending of course on the severity of the damage done prior to treatment. In Lorenzo’s case, the disorder had already corrupted too large of an area of his brain so the treatment given by the doctors would have been of little help to him. In most cases, death occurs nine months after diagnosis, however, Lorenzo’s parents refused to let death be his only option and they did their best to find another treatment to help their boy. This movie relates to chemistry in many ways, especially in the sense that there were chemical imbalances observed and the reactions of these imbalances were noted for future reference. As a major component in the medical field, chemistry is used in producing new solutions, observing their reactions, and testing the effectiveness of these solutions in treating or curing various illnesses. This is shown when Lorenzo’s parents continuously perform their experiments of mixing various substances and noting their ability to lower fat build-up in hopes of finding a cure to their son’s diminishing health. If put under the same circumstances that Lorenzo’s parents were put under, I believe that I would go to the same lengths in attempting to find some kind of treatment for my child. I think that my maternal instinct to care and protect my child would be too strong for me to just sit back and watch my child suffer, and honestly, seeing my child helpless and constantly struggling to live would be more than enough reason to do my best in finding something to ease, if not cure, my child’s illness. Whether or not I had been gifted with the knowledge needed to find such a remedy, I would still want to do all that I could for my child, even if it meant risking my life to save hers, and if nothing could be done, I would be sure to stay by my  child’s side at all times. However, one thing that I would never do would be to tell the doctors to end the life support given to my child. Even if that was the only way to end her suffering, I would rather let nature run its course than to feel guilty at finalizing the action of which would â€Å"help† her (according to other’s opinions who have no idea what she is going through) and feeling like a murderer of my own flesh and blood. When Lorenzo’s parents had made the discovery of a tonic, powerful enough to soothe the symptoms of ALD and lower the fat build-up, they did the right thing in immediately relaying the information of their treatment to doctors in hopes of saving other patients suffering as their son was. However, I feel that the doctors abused their powers as medical authorities in neglecting to accept the remedy, or even look into the composition of the remedy to find their own evidence of the effectiveness and ability to cure of the treatment. As doctors, their duty is to aid and assist the patients and to inform the patient’s families of every option available to ensure that they, as professionals in the medical field, did all that they could to cure or save their patients. However, by refusing to investigate the medicine or give the patients the option of trying this new innovation, the doctors neglected fulfilling their duty to its fullest extent and deprived their patients of anot her possible chance at survival. It is understood that all possible treatments produced are tested for months to confirm their effectiveness at combating ailments, of which is a very beneficial procedure to all. Lorenzo’s parents conducted numerous tests on their tonic’s working ability did and were aware of all possible reactions of their product. They felt confident in its positive benefits, which is why I feel they were so insistent at giving the medicine to other patients. I doubt that Lorenzo’s parents would have passed on such a treatment without knowing all the effects of their remedy, especially since they used the exact same medicine on their own child. However, I do not understand why the doctors would have been so set on refusing outside influences. I believe that one change made to the current system could be for doctors to be more willing to accept suggestions given to them, whether the suggestion be proposed by a medical professional or not. As shown in the movie, helpful information and innovations can be given by people other than medical authorities, such as  dedicated parents, like those of Lorenzo. Another change to the system would be to make medici nes more affordable to ensure everyone the same chance at living a long and healthy life. Even though technology has improved in the field of medicines and researchers have become more educated in areas of which they had once been clueless and lost, the medical field still has yet to be perfected. Many diseases and disorders are still considered mysterious, with very little knowledge known about them, and undiscovered. Until researchers educate themselves of every aspect of these controlling â€Å"monsters†, people will continue to suffer from such ailments. However, with better funding for the investigation of these unknown illnesses, knowledge will be obtained more quickly and long-awaited innovations will be found, an advantage to many, if not all. Researchers being more open-minded and more welcome to outside suggestions and ideas would also help in solving medical problems. They could also try to be more accurate in diagnosing sicknesses to ensure that patients are given the proper treatment and care needed to combat a specific ailment. Although changes to the procedures and actions in the medical field could be made, changes concerning those involved in the well-being of mankind would also need to be made. Unless researchers, doctors, and others capable of saving mankind are more willing to listen to outside ideas and perform their jobs to their fullest extent, the goal of being more powerful than these tricky, microscopic demons, of which for centuries have left us confused and bewildered at their amazing ability to conquer our bodies for their own use, will continue to be unaccomplished.

Economic Systems Essay

Socialism Socialism is an economic system where all the economic decisions are made by the government or a central authority. There will be no private property rights since the government officially owns all resources. It is also known as a command economy or a planned system. Socialist economics refers to the economic theories, practices, and norms of hypothetical and existing socialist economic systems. A socialist economy is based on some form of social ownership, which includes varieties of public ownership and independent cooperatives, over the means of production, wherein production is carried out to directly produce use-value sometimes, but not always, coordinated through economic planning and a system of accounting based on calculation-in-kind or a direct measure of labor-time. The term socialist economics may also be applied to analysis of former and existing economic systems that call themselves â€Å"socialist†, such as the works of Hungarian economist Jà ¡nos Kornai. Socialist economics has been associated with different schools of economic thought, most notably Marxian economics, institutional economics, evolutionary economics and neoclassical economics. Early socialism, like Ricardian socialism, was based on classical economics. During the 20th century, proposals and models for planned economies and market socialism were based heavily on neoclassical economics or a synthesis of neoclassical economics with Marxian or institutional economics. look more:  what is the basic economic problem essay Characteristics 1 Public ownership of resources All the resources are owned and operated by the state or the government in the interest of society as a whole. This is to ensure equal opportunity of all citizens regardless of their income. Public ownership also aims to fully utilize the country’s resources. 2 Central planning authority The central authority is responsible for making economic decisions for society. The authority plans and allocates resources between current consumption and investment for the future. 3 Price mechanism of lesser importance Socialism gives less importance to market forces. Prices are fixed by the government and not determined by demand and supply. Private profits are not allowed and public interest is emphasized in the command economy. 4 Central control and ownership A socialist economy is a fully planned economy where the government intervenes in all aspects of economic activity. The government controls production, consumption, and the distribution of goods and services. Merits of Socialism 1 Production according to basic needs Production in a socialist economy is mainly directed at producing the basic needs of the people such as food, clothing and building materials. It is not determined by the purchasing power of the rich in society. The phenomenon of the rich getting richer and the poor getting poorer does not exist in the socialist economy. 2 Equal distribution of income and wealth There is no difference between the rich and the poor. This system provides equal opportunity for all citizens in earning an income. Wealth is also equally distributed since private enterprise is limited 3 Better allocation of resourses Under the socialist system, the planning authority will allocate resources between current consumption and future investment. 4 No serious unemployment or recession/ inflation The unemployment rate and inflation are usually taken care of by the government to ensure economic stability in the country. 5 Rapid economic development In a socialism system, the economy grows faster. The main factors responsible for the rapic economic growth are the full utilization of resources, planning and quick decisions. 6 Social welfare The government will provide all citizens of the country with full social security benefits such as pension, accident benefits and others. Since the government is concerned, labour dispute and wastage of resources do not exist in a socialism system. Economic Decisions in a Socialistic System What to produce In Socialism, planning authorities decide what to produce. The Central Planning Authority will collect detailed statistics on the resource availability in the country and link it with national priorities. If the planning authority has a choice of producing computers using more labour or more machinery. How to produce The Central Planning Authority also decided on the techniques to be used in the production of different goods and services. The choice is between traditional and modern technique of production. For example, the planning authority has a choice of producing computers using more labour or more machinery. For whom to produce The distribution of the national product is decided by the Central Planning Authority. The distribution of various commodities among citizens is done through a set of administred fixwd processes. Necessity goods are fixed at lower prices, and luxury goods at higher prices. The purpose of these fixed prices is to reduce inequalities in the distribution of income. Demerits of Socialism 1 Lacks of incentives and initative by individuals Individuals have no profit motive. This will lead to economic inefficiency since jobs are provided by the government and individuals are not motivated to work harder. 2 Loss of economic freedom and consumer sovereignty Under a socialist economy, the central planning authority or the government directs all economic activity. There is no choice given to the consumer and they accept whatever public enterprise produce. There is little variety in the goods and services produced and availability is restricted. Limited private organizations exist in a socialist economy. 3 Absence of competition Since there are limited private enterprises, less research and development (R&D) activities are carried out. This results in low quality products since there is no competition. Socialist economies in theory Robin Hahnel and Michael Albert identify five economic models within the rubric of socialist economics * Public Enterprise Centrally Planned Economy in which all property is owned by the State and all key economic decisions are made centrally by the State, the former Soviet Union. * Public Enterprise State-Managed Market Economy, one form of market socialism which attempts to use the price mechanism to increase economic efficiency, while all decisive productive assets remain in the ownership of the state, e.g. socialist market economy in China after reform. * A mixed economy, where public and private ownership are mixed, and where industrial planning is ultimately subordinate to market allocation, the model generally adopted by social democrats e.g. in twentieth century Sweden. * Public Enterprise Employee Managed Market Economies, another form of market socialism in which publicly owned, employee-managed production units engage in free market exchange of goods and services with one another as well as with final consumers, e.g. mid twentieth century Yugoslavia, Two more theoretical models are Prabhat Ranjan Sarkar’s Progressive Utilization Theory and Economic democracy. * Public Enterprise Participatory Planning, an economy featuring social ownership of the means of production with allocation based on an integration of decentralized democratic planning, e.g. stateless communism, libertarian socialism. An incipient historical forebear is that of Catalonia during the Spanish revolution. More developed theoretical models include those of Karl Polanyi, Participatory Economics and the negotiated coordination model of Pat Devine, as well as in Cornelius Castoriadis’s pamphlet â€Å"Workers’ Councils and the Economics of a Self-Managed Society†. Additionally, Jà ¡nos Kornai identifies five distinct classifications for socialism: * Classical / Marxist conception, where socialism is a stage of economic development in which wage labour, private property in the means of production and monetary relations have been made redundant through the development of the productive forces, so that capital accumulation has been superseded by economic planning. Economic planning in this definition means conscious allocation of economic inputs and the means of production by the associated producers to directly maximise use-values as opposed to exchange-values, in contrast to the â€Å"anarchy of production† of capitalism. * Walrasian / Market Socialist which defines socialism as public-ownership or cooperative-enterprises in a market economy, with prices for producer goods set through a trial-and-error method by a central planning board. In this view, socialism is defined in terms of de jure public property rights over major enterprises. * Leninist conception, which includes a form of political organisation based on control of the means of production and government by a single political party apparatus that claims to act in the interest of the working class, and an ideology hostile toward markets and political dissent, with coordination of economic activity through centralised economic planning (a â€Å"command economy†). * Social Democratic concept, based on the capitalist mode of production, which defines socialism as a set of values rather than a specific type of social and economic organisation. It includes unconditional support for parliamentary democracy, gradual and reformist attempts to establish socialism, and support for socially progressive causes. Social democrats are not opposed to the market or private property; instead they try to ameliorate the effects of capitalism through a welfare state, which relies on the market as the fundamental coordinating entity in the economy and a degree of public ownership/public provision of public goods in an economy otherwise dominated by private enterprise. * East Asian model, or socialist market economy, based on a largely free-market, capital accumulation for profit and substantial private ownership along with state-ownership of strategic industries monopolised by a single political party. Jà ¡nos Kornai ultimately leaves the classification of this model (as either socialist or capitalist) to the reader.[16] What are the disadvantages and advantages of socialism? Advantages of Socialism * In environments with plentiful resources, socialism provides all members with their survival needs, creating a stable social environment. * Members that cannot participate economically – due to disabilities, age, or periods of poor health – can still impart wisdom, emotional support and continuity of experience to the system. * Freedom from work provides opportunity for some societal members to explore non-economically-productive pursuits, such as pure science, math and non-popular arts. Disadvantages of Socialism * Since there is no culling and no economic advantage to working harder, socialistic systems provide no inherent incentive to participate. This makes socialism internally unstable. * Due to a lack of incentives, socialistic systems tend not to be competitive, making them externally unstable. * In times of plenty, immigrants are drawn to the free resources offered by socialistic systems, while potentially adding nothing economically productive. * In times of scarcity, resentment of non-economically-productive members of society increases, causing a destabilizing effect on the society and economy History of socialist economic thought Values of socialism have roots in pre-capitalist institutions such as the religious communes, reciprocal obligations, and communal charity of Mediaeval Europe, the development of its economic theory primarily reflects and responds to the monumental changes brought about by the dissolution of feudalism and the emergence of specifically capitalist social relations. As such it is commonly regarded as a movement belonging to the modern era. Many socialists have considered their advocacy as the preservation and extension of the radical humanist ideas expressed in Enlightenment doctrine such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s Discourse on Inequality, Wilhelm von Humboldt’s Limits of State Action, or Immanuel Kant’s insistent defense of the French Revolution. Capitalism appeared in mature form as a result of the problems raised when an industrial factory system requiring long-term investment and entailing corresponding risks was introduced into an internationalized commercial (mercantilist) framework. Historically speaking, the most pressing needs of this new system were an assured supply of the elements of industry – land, elaborate machinery, and labour – and these imperatives led to the commodification of these elements. According to influential socialist economic historian Karl Polanyi’s classic account, the forceful transformation of land, money and especially labour into commodities to be allocated by an autonomous market mechanism was an alien and inhuman rupture of the pre-existing social fabric. Marx had viewed the process in a similar light, referring to it as part of the process of â€Å"primitive accumulation† whereby enough initial capital is amassed to begin capitalist production. The dislocation that Polyani and others describe, triggered natural counter-movements in efforts to re-embed the economy in society. These counter-movements, that included, for example, the Luddite rebellions, are the incipient socialist movements. Over time such movements gave birth to or acquired an array of intellectual defenders who attempted to develop their ideas in theory. As Polanyi noted, these counter-movements were mostly reactive and therefore not full-fledged socialist movements. Some demands went no further than a wish to mitigate the capitalist market’s worst effects. Later, a full socialist program developed, arguing for systemic transformation. Its theorists believed that even if markets and private property could be tamed so as not to be excessively â€Å"exploitative†, or crises could be effectively mitigated, capitalist social relations would remain significantly unjust and anti-democratic, suppressing universal human needs for fulfilling, empowering and creative work, diversity and solidarity. Within this context socialism has undergone four periods: the first in the 19th century was a period of utopian visions (1780s-1850s); then occurred the rise of revolutionary socialist and Communist movements in the 19th century as the primary opposition to the rise of corporations and industrialization (1830–1916); the polarisation of socialism around the question of the Soviet Union, and adoption of socialist or social democratic policies in response (1916–1989) and the response of socialism in the neo-liberal era (1990- ). As socialism developed, so did the socialist system of economics. Utopian socialism The first theories which came to hold the term â€Å"socialism† began to be formulated in the late 18th century, and were termed â€Å"socialism† early in the 19th century. The central beliefs of the socialism of this period rested on the exploitation of those who labored by those who owned capital or rented land and housing. The abject misery, poverty and disease to which laboring classes seemed destined was the inspiration for a series of schools of thought which argued that life under a class of masters, or â€Å"capitalists† as they were then becoming to be called, would consist of working classes being driven down to subsistence wages. Socialist ideas found expression in utopian movements, which often formed agricultural communes aimed at being self-sufficient on the land. These included many religious movements, such as the Shakers in America. Utopian socialism had little to offer in terms of a systematic theory of economic phenomena. In theory, economic problems were dissolved by a utopian society which had transcended material scarcity. In practice, small communities with a common spirit could sometimes resolve allocation problems. Socialism and classical political economy The first organized theories of socialist economics were significantly impacted by classical economic theory, including elements in Adam Smith, Robert Malthus and David Ricardo. In Smith there is a conception of a common good not provided by the market, a class analysis, a concern for the dehumanizing aspects of the factory system, and the concept of rent as being unproductive. Ricardo argued that the renting class was parasitic. This, and the possibility of a â€Å"general glut†, an over accumulation of capital to produce goods for sale rather than for use, became the foundation of a rising critique of the concept that free markets with competition would be sufficient to prevent disastrous downturns in the economy, and whether the need for expansion would inevitably lead to war. Socialist political economy before Marx Charles Fourier, influential early French socialist thinker A key early socialist theorist of political economy was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. He was the most well-known of nineteenth century mutualist theorists and the first thinker to refer to himself as an anarchist. Others were: Technocrats like Henri de Saint Simon, agrarian radicals like Thomas Spence, William Ogilvie and William Cobbett; anti-capitalists like Thomas Hodgskin; communitarian and utopian socialists like Robert Owen, William Thompson and Charles Fourier; anti-market socialists like John Gray and John Francis Bray; the Christian mutualist William Batchelder Greene; as well as the theorists of the Chartist movement and early proponents of syndicalism. The first advocates of socialism promoted social leveling in order to create a meritocratic or technocratic society based upon individual talent. Count Henri de Saint-Simon was the first individual to coin the term â€Å"socialism†. Simon was fascinated by the enormous potential of science and technology, which led him to advocate a socialist society that would eliminate the disorderly aspects of capitalism and which would be based upon equal opportunities. Simon advocated a society in which each person was ranked according to his or her capacities and rewarded according to his or her work. This was accompanied by a desire to implement a rationally organized economy based on planning and geared towards large-scale scientific and material progress, which embodied a desire for a semi-planned economy. Other early socialist thinkers were influenced by the classical economists. The Ricardian socialists, such as Thomas Hodgskin and Charles Hall, were based on the work of David Ricardo and reasoned that the equilibrium value of commodities approximated producer prices when those commodities were in elastic supply, and that these producer prices corresponded to the embodied labor. The Ricardian socialists viewed profit, interest and rent as deductions from this exchange-value. Das Kapital Karl Marx employed systematic analysis in an ambitious attempt to elucidate capitalism’s contradictory laws of motion, as well as to expose the specific mechanisms by which it exploits and alienates. He radically modified classical political economic theories. Notably, the labor theory of value that had been worked upon by Adam Smith and David Ricardo, was transformed into his characteristic â€Å"law of value† and used for the purpose of revealing how commodity fetishism obscures the reality of capitalist society. His approach, which Engels would call â€Å"scientific socialism†, would stand as the branching point in economic theory: in one direction went those who rejected the capitalist system as fundamentally anti-social, arguing that it could never be harnessed to effectively realize the fullest development of human potentialities wherein â€Å"the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all.†. Das Kapital is one of the many famous incomplete works of economic theory: Marx had planned four volumes, completed two, and left his collaborator Engels to complete the third. In many ways the work is modelled on Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations, seeking to be a comprehensive logical description of production, consumption and finance in relation to morality and the state. It is a work of philosophy, anthropology and sociology as much as one of economics. However, it has several important statements: * The Law of Value Capitalist production is the production of â€Å"an immense multitude of commodities† or generalised commodity production. A commodity has two essential qualities firstly, they are useful, they satisfy some human want, â€Å"the nature of such wants, whether, for instance, they spring from the stomach or from fancy, makes no difference,† and secondly they are sold on a market or exchanged. Critically the exchange value of a commodity â€Å"is independent of the amount of labour required to appropriate its useful qualities.† But rather depends on the amount of socially necessary labour required to produce it. All commodities are sold at their value, so the origin of the capitalist profit is not in cheating or theft but in the fact that the cost of reproduction of labour power, or the worker’s wage, is less than the value created during their time at work, enabling the capitalists to yield a surplus value or profit on their investments. * Historical Property Relations Historical capitalism represents a process of momentous social upheaval where rural masses were separated from the land and ownership of the means of production by force, deprivation, and legal manipulation, creating an urban proletariat based on the institution of wage-labour. Moreover, capitalist property relations aggravated the artificial separation between city and country, which is a key factor in accounting for the metabolic rift between human beings in capitalism and their natural environment, which is at the root of our current ecological dilemmas. * Commodity Fetishism Marx adapted previous value-theory to show that in capitalism phenomena involved with the price system (markets, competition, supply and demand) constitute a powerful ideology that obscures the underlying social relations of capitalist society. â€Å"Commodity fetishism† refers to this distortion of appearance. The underlying social reality is one of economic exploitation. * Economic Exploitation Workers are the fundamental creative source of new value. Property relations affording the right of usufruct and despotic control of the workplace to capitalists are the devices by which the surplus value created by workers is appropriated by the capitalists. * Accumulation Inherent to capitalism is the incessant drive to accumulate as a response to the competitive forces acting upon all capitalists. In such a context the accumulated wealth which is the source of the capitalist’s social power derives itself from being able to repeat the circuit of Money–>Commodity–>Money’, where the capitalist receives an increment or â€Å"surplus value† higher than their initial investment, as rapidly and efficiently as possible. Moreover this driving imperative leads capitalism to its expansion on a worldwide scale. * Crises Marx identified natural and historically specific (i.e. structural) barriers to accumulation that were interrelated and interpenetrated one another in times of crises. Different types of crises, such as realization crises and overproduction crises, are expressions of capitalism’s inability to constructively overcome such barriers. Moreover, the upshot of crises is increased centralization, the expropriation of the many capitalists by the few. * Centralization The interacting forces of competition, endemic crises, intensive and extensive expansion of the scale of production, and a growing interdependency with the state apparatus, all promote a strong developmental tendency towards the centralization of capital. * Material Development As a result of its constant drive to optimize profitability by increasing the productivity of labour, typically by revolutionizing technology and production techniques, capitalism develops so as to progressively reduce the objective need for work, suggesting the potential for a new era of creative forms of work and expanded scope for leisure. * Socialization, and the pre-conditions for Revolution By socializing the labour process, concentrating workers into urban settings in large-scale production processes and linking them in a worldwide market, the agents of a potential revolutionary change are created. Thus Marx felt that in the course of its development capitalism was at the same time developing the preconditions for its own negation. However, although the objective conditions for change are generated by the capitalist system itself, the subjective conditions for social revolution can only come about through the apprehension of the objective circumstances by the agents themselves and the transformation of such understanding into an effective revolutionary program Anarchist economics Anarchist economics is the set of theories and practices of economics and economic activity within the political philosophy of anarchism. Pierre Joseph Proudhon was involved with the Lyons mutualists and later adopted the name to describe his own teachings. Mutualism is an anarchist school of thought that originates in the writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who envisioned a society where each person might possess a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labor in the free market. Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual-credit bank that would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate, just high enough to cover administration. Mutualism is based on a labor theory of value that holds that when labor or its product is sold, in exchange, it ought to receive goods or services embodying â€Å"the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility†. Receiving anything less would be considered exploitation, theft of labor, or usury. Collectivist anarchism (also known as anarcho-collectivism) is a revolutionary doctrine that advocates the abolition of the state and private ownership of the means of production. Instead, it envisions the means of production being owned collectively and controlled and managed by the producers themselves. Once collectivization takes place, workers’ salaries would be determined in democratic organizations based on the amount of time they contributed to production. These salaries would be used to purchase goods in a communal market. Collectivist anarchism is most commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin, the anti-authoritarian sections of the First International, and the early Spanish anarchist movement. The Conquest of Bread by Peter Kropotkin, influential work which presents the economic vision ofanarcho-communism Anarchist communism is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, private property, and capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations and workers’ councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: â€Å"from each according to ability, to each according to need†. Unlike mutualism, collectivist anarchism and marxism, anarcho-communism as defended by Peter Kropotkin and Errico Malatesta rejected the labor theory of value altogether, instead advocating a gift economy and to base distribution on need. Anarchist communism as a coherent, modern economic-political philosophy was first formulated in the Italian section of the First International by Carlo Cafiero, Emilio Covelli, Errico Malatesta, Andrea Costa and other ex-Mazzinian Republicans. Out of respect for Mikhail Bakunin, they did not make their differences with collectivist anarchism explicit until after Bakunin’s death. By the early 1880s, most of the European anarchist movement had adopted an anarchist communist position, advocating the abolition of wage labour and distribution according to need. Ironically, the â€Å"collectivist† label then became more commonly associated with Marxist state socialists who advocated the retention of some sort of wage system during the transition to full communism. After Marx Marx’s work sharpened the existing differences between the revolutionary and non-revolutionary socialists. Non-revolutionary socialists took inspiration from the work of John Stuart Mill, and later Keynes and the Keynesians, who provided theoretical justification for (potentially very extensive) state involvement in an existing market economy. According to the Keynesians, if the business cycle could be solved by national ownership of key industries and state direction of their investment, class antagonism would be effectively tamed a compact would be formed between labour and the capitalists. There would be no need for revolution; instead Keynes looked to the eventual â€Å"euthanasia of the rentier† sometime in the far future. Joan Robinson and Michael Kalecki employed Keynesian insights to form the basis of a critical post-Keynesian economics that at times went well beyond liberal reformism. Many original socialist economic ideas would also emerge out of the trade union movement In the wake of Marx, â€Å"Marxist† economists developed many different, sometimes contradictory tendencies. Some of these tendencies were based on internal disputes about the meaning of some of Marx’s ideas, including the ‘Law of Value’ and his crisis theory. Other variations were elaborations that subsequent theorists made in light of real world developments. For example the monopoly capitalist school saw Paul A. Baran and Paul Sweezy attempt to modify Marx’s theory of capitalist development, which was based upon the assumption of price competition, to reflect the evolution to a stage where both economy and state were subject to the dominating influence of giant corporations. World-systems analysis, would restate Marx’s ideas about the worldwide division of labour and the drive to accumulate from the holistic perspective of capitalism’s historical development as a global system. Accordingly, Immanuel Wallerstein, writing in 1979, maintained that â€Å"There are today no socialist systems in the world-economy any more than there are feudal systems because there is only one world-system. It is a world-economy and it is by definition capitalist in form. Socialism involves the creation of a new kind of world-system, neither a redistributive world-empire nor a capitalist world-economy but a socialist world-government. I don’t see this projection as being in the least utopian but I also don’t feel its institution is imminent. It will be the outcome of a long social struggle in forms that may be familiar and perhaps in very few forms, that will take place in all the areas of the world-economy.† Meanwhile other notable strands of reformist and revolutionary socialist economics sprung up that were either only loosely associated with Marxism or wholly independent. Thorsten Veblen is widely credited as the founder of critical institutionalism. His idiosyncratic theorizing included acidic critiques of the inefficiency of capitalism, monopolies, advertising, and the utility of conspicuous consumption. Some institutionalists have addressed the incentive problems experienced by the Soviet Union. Critical institutionalists have worked on the specification of incentive-compatible institutions, usually based on forms of participatory democracy, as a resolution superior to allocation by an autonomous market mechanism. Another key socialist, closely related to Marx, Keynes, and Gramsci, was Piero Sraffa. He mined classical political economy, particularly Ricardo, in an attempt to erect a value theory that was at the same time an explanation of the normal distribution of prices in an economy, as well that of income and economic growth. A key finding was that the net product or surplus in the sphere of production was determined by the balance of bargaining power between workers and capitalists, which was in turn subject to the influence of non-economic, presumably social and political factors.